19/03/09

Mining – India 1
1. SC leaves decision on mining ban to state 1
2. Coal India to award revival contracts for abandoned mines in 2009-10 3
3. Vedanta: Golden steps in mining & metals industry 4
4. “Tata, JSPL cannot divert surplus coal from CTL projects” 6
5. NTPC plans power projects in Kazakhstan to secure coal assets 6
6. Coal India eyes mining assets in Australia 7
Mining – International 8
7. Sand mining request puts new Indian River County rules to test 8
8. Mount Milligan Mine gets environmental approval 9
9. Law would end mountaintop coal mining 9
10. BH P suspends WA iron-ore operations 10
11. Coal plant CO2 capture technology essential in climate change battle 11
Other News – India 12
12. Orissa fishermen seek scrapping of CZM notification 12
13. How Will Agriculture Adapt To Climatic Change? 13
14. Climate change, water and food security 21

Mining – India

SC leaves decision on mining ban to state
Tannu Sharma
Posted: Mar 19, 2009 at 2337 hrs IST

New Delhi ARAVALLI HILLS: ‘Since it has agreed to the panel’s recommendations, it’s for the state to act on it’
The Supreme Court made it clear on Wednesday that if any ban on mining activity in the Aravalli range was to be imposed, it would entirely be the state’s prerogative since it had agreed with the Central Empowered Committee’s recommendations on this. The committee had called for widespread demolition and the closure of all mines in Faridabad and Gurgaon districts in the Aravalli range.
“It’s not that the Supreme Court is putting a ban. We must be very clear. We cannot stop them (Haryana administration),” remarked the three-member special bench headed by Chief Justice K G Balakrishnan at the end of a daylong hearing into the issue of whether to allow construction and mining at the cost of environment.
“Since it has agreed to the Central Empowered Committee’s recommendations, it’s for the state to act on it,” observed Justice Arijit Pasayat, who was also part of the bench, along with the CJI and Justice S H Kapadia.
In case a complete ban is to be imposed on mining, as was suggested by the high-powered environment panel, the court attempted to shift the onus on the Bhupinder Singh Hooda government. It remarked: “If the state (Haryana) in concurrence with the Central government wants to act upon these recommendations, we cannot stop them,” said Justice Pasayat on behalf of the ‘green’ bench.
The observations came following extensive submissions by senior advocate Ranjeet Kumar and amicus curiae A D N Rao, who strongly pressed for seeking directions to accept the Central Empowered Committee’s report. In its report submitted before the apex court in January 2009, the court-appointed environment panel, comprising environmentalists and bureaucrats, had recommended that all existing mining leases be revoked.
The Central Empowered Committee had also asked the state government that no mining of major minerals be permitted, while mining for minor minerals — construction material — could be allowed, for which up to 600 hectare be identified in Faridabad. And no more than 30 hectares would be given to an individual, it had suggested.
Agreeing with the committee, Chief Secretary Daharam Vir had said in his affidavit: “The State of Haryana is in complete agreement with the recommendations. The court may kindly settle the principles proposed in the report.”
With the observations made on Wednesday, it seems the court is willing to leave the issue to the state to take whatever step it contemplates to regulate the constructions or mining activity in the eco-fragile zone of Aravalli, “which has witnessed complete devastation of the environment”.
‘Faridabad principles applicable to Gurgaon’
Gurgaon may have to bear the brunt of the widespread constructions that have come up in every nook and corner of the 58 villages on the Aravalli Hills in Gurgaon. In its report with regard to mining, constructions and other activities in the area, placed on Wednesday, the Central Empowered Committee said: “The committee is of the view that the broad principles and recommendations made by it in its report in respect of Aravalli Hills areas in Faridabad district are equally applicable in respect of such area falling in Gurgaon district.”
http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/sc-leaves-decision-on-mining-ban-to-state/436206/


Coal India to award revival contracts for abandoned mines in 2009-10

Jayajit Dash / Kolkata/ Bhubaneswar March 19, 2009, 0:43 IST

Coal India Limited (CIL) expects to complete the tendering process for revival and development of the abandoned coal mines, having reserves of about 1.6 billion tonnes, by the end of 2009-10.
The coal PSU was keen on developing the abandoned coal mines by forging joint ventures with other mining companies both domestic or overseas. However, the number of JV companies to be formed by CIL for revival of the abandoned mines was yet to be decided as the tendering process for short listing the companies was underway.
“CIL has received proposals from 12 companies in response to its expressions of interest invited for the revival and development of abandoned mines. The proposals of these 12 companies are being evaluated by Central Mine Planning and Design Institute (CMPDI), a subsidiary of CIL and a few companies would be shortlisted for forming JVs”, a top official of CIL told Business Standard.
“We expect to complete the tendering process for revival of abandoned mines by the end of 2009-10. The investment figure on revival and development of the abandoned mines located in the different subsidiaries of CIL can be known only after the shortlisted companies prepare their reports”, he added.
Meanwhile CIL is in the process of constituting a committee which would work out the modalities for developing the abandoned coal mines. The coal major’s thrust on revival of underground mines was aimed at scaling up coal production to meet the growing requirement of the raw material in the country. The demand for coal in the country is expected to go up to 720 million tonnes by 2012 and apart from scaling up its coal production; CIL was scouting for acquisition of overseas coal assets in countries like Australia, Canada and Indonesia to meet the domestic coal requirement.
CIL was recently awarded exploratory rights for two coal mining blocks in Mozambique with an estimated reserve of around one billion tonnes.
http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/coal-india-to-award-revival-contracts-for-abandoned-mines-in-2009-10/352218/


Vedanta: Golden steps in mining & metals industry
Wednesday, Mar 18, 2009
India’s Vedanta group is scripting a success story in mining sector with its brave decisions to acquire new companies even though the global meltdown has wreaked havoc in metal sector.
The credit for this innovative moves goes to Vedanta group chairman Anil Agarwal, who never shied away from taking the company to new heights with his brave decisions.
In a move which had all the risks involved, in 2007 the company acquired a controlling stake in Sesa Goa, a private-sector producer of iron ore, from Japan’s Mitsui. Now, this was seen as a declaration of the group’s intention to occupy space in the steel sector at the appropriate time.
However, the decision will lift the company to new heights in the coming years as Vedanta group knows the demand for the metals will go up in the next wave. By then, the company will be ready with enough production capacity to meet the demand. In fact, everything turned gold when Vedanta group touched it. That is called Midas touch.
After Vedanta acquired the majority stake in aluminium maker Balco in December 2001, the indifferently performing Balco’s capacity rose by 250,000 tonnes to 350,000 tonnes.
Who could have foreseen that after Sterlite, a Vedanta group company, took control of a non-performing Hindustan Zinc in April 2002, the entity would come to own a zinc-lead capacity of 1 million tonnes by 2010.
Vedanta group is now well on course to achieve the minimum declared capacity of 1 million tonnes for every non-ferrous metal in its portfolio.
Again Vedanta will set up aluminium manufacturing capacities in Burdwan district of West Bengal at an investment of Rs 20,000 crore. A Memorandum of Development in this regard was signed between the Vedanta Group and the West Bengal Industrial Development Corporation Ltd.
As part of its roadmap in this regard, the Vedanta Group has acquired, and will revive, the now-defunct West Bengal Aluminium Corporation that was set up in 1952 with an installed capacity of 30,000 tonnes per annum (tpa).
Along with this, Vedanta will also set up new capacities with a view to taking the total smelter capacity to 6.5 lakh tpa. Additionally, a power plant of 3000 MW capacity would be set up in two phases of 1,500 MW each. The twin projects will require 1,000 acres of land and are scheduled for completion within the next two years.
It also has grand plans for Sesa Goa which owns iron ore reserves of 180 million tonnes.
The experience of steel makers here, not to speak of mining groups in acquiring assets overcoming the maze of regulatory hurdles, is not at all encouraging. However, no one doubts Vedanta’s capacity to pull off a huge success in adverse conditions. This is specially so after Sterlite sewing up the $1.1-billion Asarco deal.
Tata Steel must now be regretting that it acquired Corus in April 2007 by paying the full price in a booming market. Same is the case with Hindalco, which acquired the world’s largest aluminium rolling company Novelis.
In this regard too, luck has been on the side of Vedanta. Initially, Vedanta made an offer of $2.6 billion for Asarco. But that was a year ago, when copper was commanding over double today’s price. See how much cheaper Asarco assets has now become for Vedanta.
But why should Vedanta be going ahead with all its expansion programmes here and abroad when leading metal groups, including ArcelorMittal, Rio Tinto Alcan and Chinalco, doing some serious production cuts and shelving expansion programmes till economic activity gains pace.
According to one school of thinking, if funds are available, a difficult proposition when banks are being bailed out by governments, then a group like Vedanta should not wait for the next spurt in demand to create new capacity. Vedanta officials claim that the group, which is having Rs 30,000 crore in cash, remains committed to investing as much as Rs 60,000 crore in new projects.
In Vedanta’s capacity creation package, alumina and aluminium take the cake. At this point, India’s total aluminium capacity is 1.3 million tonnes in which the share of Vedanta is 385,000 tonnes. But here account has not been taken of Vedanta’s 500,000-tonne smelter in Orissa’s Jharsuguda, which is now getting commissioned.
In a move to make best use of Orissa’s bauxite and coal deposits, Vedanta has decided to finally create 1.6 million tonnes of smelting capacity at Jharsuguda to be backed by a 5 million tonne alumina refinery at Lanjigarh and a power complex of 3,750 MW. At the same time, Balco’s aluminium capacity will be raised to 1 million tonnes.
If Vedanta has its way then all this capacity will be on ground by 2013. But it was time consuming for Vedanta to start mining operation at Lanjigarh where it owns bauxite deposit of 75 million tonnes but also has the government promise of an equally large deposit nearby.
But all this is to support its 1 million tonne refinery, which sadly now has to be fed with costly bauxite from third party mines. This will be the case till such time Vedanta has got the final set of environmental clearances post Supreme Court assent to start mining.
Building a 5-million-tonne refinery at Lanjigarh will be justified provided linkages to bauxite deposits lasting about 50 years could be acquired. Orissa, where most of Vedanta’s aluminium action is to unfold, has as much as 1.7 billion tonnes of the country’s total 3.3 billion tonnes of bauxite reserves. Even after allotment/earmarking of deposits for different groups, Orissa is left with free bauxite reserves of 640 million tonnes.
Vedanta says it has strong claims to free deposits because of the world’s single largest smelter it is committed to build at Jharsuguda. But whether Vedanta will get all the bauxite it needs will be a toss of dice.
http://www.yourindustrynews.com/vedanta:+golden+steps+in+mining+&+metals+industry_26979.html


“Tata, JSPL cannot divert surplus coal from CTL projects”
NEW DELHI: Tata Sons-Sasol joint venture Strategic Energy Technology Systems and Jindal Steel and Power will not be able to divert surplus coal from the promotional mining blocks allotted for $18 billion projects to convert coal into liquid petroleum, so urces said.
“In the allotment letters, we have categorically stated that the coal mined from the two blocks has to be used exclusively for coal-to-liquid projects,” a senior official in the Coal Ministry said on Wednesday.
The government this month allocated Ramchandi and Shrirampur coal blocks in Orissa to Strategic Energy Technology Systems and Jindal Steel and Power Ltd (JSPL), respectively.
Each of the coal blocks has an estimated reserve of 1.5 billion tonnes and is to be used for converting the dry fuel into liquid petroleum.
As per the rule, companies have to seek permission from the government if they want to use the surplus coal allotted for captive purposes for any of their other projects.
In the case of two CTL projects, however, the allottees intending to utilise extra coal for steel, power or any other sectors, are unlikely to be allowed by the Centre to do so, as they are the ambitious pilot projects, the official said. – PTI
http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blnus/03181715.htm


NTPC plans power projects in Kazakhstan to secure coal assets
Livemint reported that NTPC Limited plans to set up power projects in Kazakhstan so that it gets to import coal from that country.

Mr Murli Deora minister of petroleum and natural gas said last week at a high level meet in Astana, Kazakhstan, where top officials of both India and Kazakhstan were present that “NTPC has proven capabilities of installing, operating and maintaining huge thermal power plants and we are very keen to replicate the process in Kazakhstan. In addition, we are also interested in importing coal from Kazakhstan.”

Mr RS Sharma CMD of NTPC said “When Mr Nursultan Nazarbayev President of Kazakhstan visited India in January, we had discussed the proposal with the delegation. They have a coal reserve of 35 billion tonne and are keen on offering some coal mines to us.”

Mr Sharma said that “We plan to follow the same model that we have firmed up in the case of Nigeria.”

In Nigeria, the company is trying to finalize a contract for the supply of 3 million tonne per annum of gas in exchange for setting up a 700MW gas based power plant and a 500 MW coal based plant in the African country.

He said that it will renovate a 200 MW unit at an existing 1,320 MW plant and train 30 Nigerian engineers. It will also start a training institute for engineers there. A similar model has been adopted in Yemen. The discussions with Kazakhstan are at a very preliminary stage. This is part of our plan to import around 15 million tonne per annum of coal.

As per report, NTPC is facing an acute shortage of coal at its projects across the country. It has a total coal requirement of 125 million tonne per annum and plans to meet demand by importing 8 million tonne in the current fiscal year. NTPC has a total capacity of 29,894 MW of which 23,895 MW is coal based. Procedural and infrastructure delays have already upset the captive coal mining plans of NTPC, as reported by Mint on October 11th.
http://steelguru.com/news/index/2009/03/19/ODY3MTU%3D/NTPC_plans_power_projects_in_Kazakhstan_to_secure_coal_assets.html
Coal India eyes mining assets in Australia

Press Trust of India / New Delhi March 19, 2009, 14:22 IST

After getting mineral concessions for two mining blocks in Mozambique, Navratna public sector unit Coal India (CIL) has now set its eyes on coal assets in Australia, government sources said.
During a meeting of the Indo-Australia joint working group on energy and mineral here this week, CIL sought details of Australian mining assets available for takeover and equity participation, a senior Coal Ministry official said today.
In response to CIL's request, Australia has agreed to provide information related to the available mining assets as also the procedures and agencies that could facilitate such deals, he added.
CIL Chairman Partha S Bhattacharya confirmed that the company is discussing a couple of options in Australia, but said it is mostly being done through ICVL, an special purpose vehicle of five leading PSUs, including CIL, to scout coal properties abroad.
CIL is not only interested in virgin coal blocks, but is also open to equity participation with companies in Australia to take over their assets.
Early this month, CIL bagged mineral concessions for two mining blocks with an estimated coal reserves of about a billion tonne in Mozambique.
http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/coal-india-eyes-mining-assets-in-australia/56937/on

Mining – International

Sand mining request puts new Indian River County rules to test
By Henry A. Stephens (Contact)
Originally published 05:35 p.m., March 18, 2009
Updated 05:35 p.m., March 18, 2009
INDIAN RIVER COUNTY — After more than a year in regulatory limbo, as the County Commission studied and beefed up its mining rules, a Port St. Lucie dentist is back with his request to mine sand from 80 acres west of Interstate 95.
Records show Dr. John Cairns plans to withdraw up to 2.5 million gallons of water a day. Project engineers Robert Leon and Aaron Bowles, with MBV Engineering of Vero Beach, said Wednesday the mine operators would pump water from the pit and remove dry sand until they got down to 20 feet. At that point, a dredge would suck up wet sand slurries for 17 more feet down.
And in the biggest demand under the new rules, county planners asked Cairns to provide a report from a hydrologist — plus deposit $10,000 with the county to pay its utilities consultant, Camp Dresser McKee’s Vero Beach office, to analyze the report.
County Planning Director Stan Boling said the report would show what kind of affect the mine would have on the wells in surrounding citrus groves.
Bowles said the mine wouldn’t be a drain on neighbors’ wells because Cairnes would be returning the water to the ground on his own site after extracting the sand.
http://www.tcpalm.com/news/2009/mar/18/sand-mining-request-puts-new-indian-river-county-r/

Mount Milligan Mine gets environmental approval
Wednesday, March 18, 2009
The BC government has given a green light to a new copper-gold mine in Northern BC.
The Ministries of Environment and Energy, Mines, and Petroleum Resources have agreed to grant an Environmental Assessment Certificate to the Mount Milligan project, located 90 kilometres north of Fort St. James and 90 kilometres west of Mackenzie.
Operated by the Terrane Metals Corporation, the proposed open-pit mine will have a capacity to process 60,000 tonnes of ore per day, to be transported by rail to either Vancouver or Prince Rupert. As always, there are certain environmental commitments the company will be expected to abide by, including water management and appropriate storage of tailings.
The $917 million project is expected to provide 370 jobs over the 30-month construction period, and then approximately 400 full-time jobs annually over the 15-year lifespan of the mine.
A government release states Terrane Metals will still need to obtain the necessary provincial licenses, leases and other approvals before the project can proceed.
http://www.energeticcity.ca/news/03/18/09/mount-milligan-mine-gets-environmental-approval

Law would end mountaintop coal mining
Nashville Business Journal
State legislators joined members of a faith-based environmental group today at a press conference launching a campaign to end the practice of mountaintop removal coal mining in Tennessee.
Creation Care organization Lindquist Environmental Appalachian Fellowship, known as LEAF, kicked off its “Only God Should Move Mountains,” campaign on Legislative Plaza.
A bill moving through the legislature known as the Tennessee Scenic Vistas Protection Act, would prohibit surface coal mining that alters or disturbs ridge lines at elevations higher than 2,000 feet above sea level.
High-elevation surface coal mining is a method of extracting coal from mountains by using explosives to provide easy access to coal seams, but irreparably damaging the mountain.
“As Christians, we are told through scripture to enjoy and respect God’s Creation,” Dawn Coppock, legislative director of LEAF, says in a press release. “Blowing up mountains for an extremely small amount of coal forever damages God’s handiwork, and we must put an end to it. Man should not permanently alter Creation.”
Senate sponsor Bill Ketron, R-Murfreesboro, was joined by House sponsors Rep. Bill Dunn, R-Knoxville and Rep. Michael Ray McDonald, D-Portland, at the press event to show support for LEAF’s effort and to address the significance of a bill that is drawing support from both sides of the political aisle.
Sen. Doug Jackson, D-Dickson, is also sponsoring the bill, but did not attend the press event.
“Some issues surpass political affiliations, and this is certainly the case for the issue of mountaintop removal,” Ketron says in the release. “While I respect the coal industry in Tennessee, it needs to be done using responsible methods. The consequences of high-elevation surface mining far outweigh the benefits.”
http://nashville.bizjournals.com/nashville/stories/2009/03/16/daily23.html

BH P suspends WA iron-ore operations
September 5, 2008
BHP Billiton suspended work at all its Western Australian iron ore operations following a second fatality in two weeks at its Yandi mine.

''All our iron ore operations in Western Australia are suspended except for essential services,'' Samantha Evans, a Melbourne-based spokeswoman for BHP, said today. Mining stopped last night and it is too early to say if the company will have to declare force majeure, Ms Evans said.
BHP is the world's third-largest iron-ore exporter and produced 111 million metric tonnes in the year ended June 30, almost all of it from Australia.

A worker also died at the Yandi mine last week, resulting in the temporary suspension of operations.

BHP dropped 2% to $36.38 in early trade.

Police are investigating the death that involved an employee of HWE Mining, the Leighton Holdings unit that BHP employs to operate the Yandi mine, BHP said. No further details of the accident were provided.

BHP controls seven iron ore mines in Western Australia's Pilbara region. Yandi, about 100 kilometers north-west of the town of Newman, is 85% owned by BHP, 8% owned by Itochu and 7% owned by Mitsui & Co.
http://www.businessday.com.au/business/bhp-suspends-wa-ironore-operations-20080905-4a9d.html


Coal plant CO2 capture technology essential in climate change battle
US Congress should accelerate the use of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology in the battle to reduce atmospheric CO2 emissions according to NMA CEO Hal Quinn.
Author: John Chadwick
Posted: Thursday , 19 Mar 2009
LONDON -
Swift development and deployment of new technology capable of capturing and storing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the world's coal-based power plants is essential for addressing climate change in an economically sustainable way, said a U.S. mining industry spokesman recently at a hearing before the House Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment. "Our current economic crisis reminds us all the more of the importance of structuring any actions responsibly so we can meet both our environmental and our economic goals," said National Mining Association (NMA) President and CEO Hal Quinn.
Quinn told subcommittee members that the nation's and the world's increasing use of coal to fuel electricity generation makes it imperative that Congress accelerate the widespread use of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology. Global greenhouse gas emissions are projected to grow by 57% in the next couple of decades, with most coming from large, rapidly growing developing countries, said Quinn. "Consequently, even if the U.S. and all advanced industrial countries stopped using coal, most of the world's CO2 emissions sources would remain untouched," he said.
Quinn has urged Congress to speed up CCS development, ensuring that global emissions are reduced and that coal can continue to provide affordable electricity for U.S. homes and businesses at a time of economic uncertainty and rising unemployment. The NMA feel greater federal support will be critical for timely deployment of CCS technology so that coal-based power plants, which provide half the nation's electricity, will be able to reduce CO2 emissions without switching to fuels more costly for households and industries. Otherwise, warned Quinn, a sharp drop in coal consumption could have a devastating effect throughout the U.S. coal community, from which it would be very difficult to recover, even with CCS technology available in the future.
This ‘valley of death' scenario can be avoided, he said, if Congress harmonises the deadlines for reducing emissions with the commercial availability of CCS technologies. Expediting CCS development will be costly, said Quinn, but it will be up to a third less than not making the effort, according to the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. He said climate change policy is a responsibility of our elected representatives, and pledged NMA's continued cooperation with Congress and the administration to find solutions that result in the lowest cost to American families and businesses.
http://www.mineweb.co.za/mineweb/view/mineweb/en/page72558?oid=80500&sn=Detail

Other News – India

Orissa fishermen seek scrapping of CZM notification

BS Reporter / Kolkata/ Bhubaneswar March 19, 2009, 0:47 IST

In a veiled opposition to the upcoming Dhamara port, the Orissa Traditional Fish Workers’ Union (OTFWU) has sought the scrapping of the newly proposed Coastal Zone Management (CZM) notification of the Centre.
The union feels that the CZM notification is meant for development of large commercial ports like Dhamra and it does not take into account the impact of these ports on the environment and the interests of the fishermen families. The union’s demand has been endorsed by Greenpeace, the international famed organization, which is opposing the Dhamra port tooth and nail. Dhamra Port is being developed by Dhamara Port Company Limited, a special purposed vehicle formed by Tata Steel and L&T.
In the run up to the Lok Sabha elections and the assembly polls in Orissa, OFTWU has sought the scrapping of the proposed CZM notification and demanded the implementation of the Coastal Regulation Zoe (CRZ) notification of 1991. The union has pledged its support to any political party which supports its charter of demands one of which includes scrapping of the proposed CMZ notification.
Addressing a press conference jointly convened by OTFWU and Greenpeace here, K Aleya, general secretary, OFTWU said, “The CMZ notification has been proposed by the Centre to facilitate setting up of large commercial ports like Dhamara without any consideration for the interests of the fishermen families. Some state governments are backing the proposed notification and we want the Orissa government to put pressure on the Centre to scrap this proposed notification .” “The Dhamra port is going to impact the livelihood of around 45,000 fishermen families in 18 villages in the state. DPCL which is developing the port has so far not given any concrete assurance to us on saving the livelihood of the fishermen families”, he added.
Other demands of OTFWU include starting a marine patrolling programme to ensure successful implementation of the Orissa Marine Fishing Regulation Act (OMFRA) of 1982, ensuring the right of passage through the core area and he harvest marine resources in the buffer zone of the Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary as per the Supreme Court order of 2004.
Other demands include inclusion of the representatives of the traditional fishermen community in the implementation of the renewed coastal security measures and issue of credit cards for al traditional fishermen in Orissa on the lines of the existing Kisan credit cards.
Backing the demands of OTFWU, Sanjeev Gopal, campaign manager (oceans) said, “Acting on the demands of OTFWU would directly or indirectly result in effective protection of biodiversity and environment. Greenpeace would continue to support OTFWU in its campaign and work in partnership with this union to ensure that the political system in Orissa acts in its favour.”
http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/orissa-fishermen-seek-scrappingczm-notification/352223/


How Will Agriculture Adapt To Climatic Change?
(Dr Gursharan Singh Kainth) Contact Reporter
Publication Date 18/3/2009 8:46:10 PM(IST)

Global warming is a modern development problem- complicated involving the entire world tangled up with difficult issues such as poverty, economic development and population growth. Dealing with it will not be easy. Ignoring it will be worse. This is one of several crucial challenges that already impede the progress of agriculture particularly in the vast marginal rainfed farming regions where majority of the Earth’s poor and food insecure reside. This means that addressing the difficulties that farmers already faced in many areas - not only low and erratic rainfall and hot temperature but also inadequate infrastructure, lack of access to markets and credit and other challenges- will contribute to current agricultural development and food security while building resilience to future climate change. Use of Bio technology for development of varieties with enhanced tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress, resource conservation technologies tat use less water and nutrients are some examples of technologies required to tackle the effect of climate change. A new model of development is required to give urgency to copping with climate change. Apparently, successful adaptation will require not only new crop technologies and increased investment in water security but also policy backup to give small-scale subsistence farmers better access to information, credit and market. Understanding these impacts will help clarify the specific adaptation that both policy makers and farmers must make.

Human activities since the beginning of the industrial revolution have led to unprecedented changes in the chemical composition of the earth’s atmosphere. We are living in midst of constantly changing climatic conditions, largely a result of human interference, and if allowed to continue can cause irreparable damage to flora, fauna and human life. The rise in the average temperature near the earth’s surface, by the use of fossil fuels such as coal, industrial and agricultural processes is scientifically termed as global warming. This is like when the heat is trapped in the car. On a very hot day, the car gets hotter when it is out in the parking lot. This is because the heat and light from the sun can get into the car through the windows, but it can not get back out. This is what the green house effect does to the earth. The heat and light can get through the atmosphere, but it can’t get out. As a result the temperature rises. Warming tends to change climatic patterns across the globe resulting in the notorious problem of global climate change. Global Climate Change as the term suggests is a global issue and is not restricted to the activities of particular individual, community, zone, region, state or country. Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Earth'''s near-surface air and oceans since the mid-twentieth century, and its projected continuation. The average global air temperature near the earth's surface increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) during the hundred years ending in 2005. The Earth's climate changes in response to external forcing, including variations in its orbit around the Sun (orbital forcing), changes in solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and atmospheric greenhouse gases(GHGs) concentrations. The detailed causes of the recent warming remain an active field of research, but the scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric GHGs due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era. The global increases in Carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change, while those of Methane (CH4) and Nitrous oxide (N2O) are primarily due to agriculture. This attribution is clearest for the most recent 50 years, for which the most detailed data are available. Pale climate information supports the interpretation that the warmth of the last half century is unusual in at least the previous 1300 years. The last time the Polar Regions were significantly warmer than present for an extended period (about 125,000 years ago), reductions in polar ice volume led to 4 to 6 meters of sea level rise. Some other hypotheses departing from the consensus view have been suggested to explain most of the temperature increase. One such hypothesis proposes that warming may be the result of variations in solar activity. None of the effects of forcing are instantaneous. The thermal inertia of the Earth's oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects mean that the Earth's current climate is not in equilibrium with the forcing imposed. Climate commitment studies indicate that even if GHGs were stabilized at 2000 levels, a further warming of about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) would still occur.

Climatic change and the associated global warming are underway. It occupies the centre stage at all levels as its impact is likely to have serious consequences for the humanity and environment. Sine 1990 the global mean temperature has increased by 0.70 Celsius. Eleven out of 12 warmest years are recorded during the last period of 1995-2006 and it is expected that the temperature would rise by 0.740C by 2100. IPCC has concluded that human activities that emit GHGs into atmosphere are responsible for most of the warming of at least past 50 years. Past emissions that are already in the pipeline mean that even if global emissions stopped today, the Earth’s temperature would rise by about 0.5 to 10 Celsius over the next several decades. If global emissions stabilize at today’s level, the temperature would increase by 2 to 50 Celsius by the time it reaches equilibrium. And if emissions continue to grow at current rates, they would cause temperatures to rise by 3 to 100 Celsius, not including climatic feedback effects that could further exacerbate climatic change in a vicious circle. Climatic change is rapidly emerging as one of the most serious threats that humanity may ever face. Because it is linked so closely to natural resources and climatic conditions, agriculture will keenly feel the effect of climatic change through changes in both the temperature and precipitation and thus the availability of water for growing food. It is predicted that the interiors of major continents will warm more quickly than the oceans. In addition current weather extremes are likely to be exacerbated. It is likely that wet areas of the world will get even wetter and dry areas will get drier. Agriculture is the largest consumer of water globally and as climatic change alters the quantity and reliability of water supplies, it could threaten the welfare of millions of poor farmers.
The effect, however, depends on the latitude; in temperate counters effects are found less negative or even rather beneficial, while in tropical and desertic countries they tend to be adverse. Finally the effect depends on altitude, mid and high altitude places benefiting more rather by a warmer temperature. The weather conditions, that is, temperature, radiation and water, determine the carrying capacity of the biosphere to produce enough food for human population and domesticated animals. Any short term fluctuations of the climate can have dramatic effects on agriculture productivity. Increased CO2 concentration will increase branching leaf area of the crops that will also reduce soil moisture. However the more favourable effects on yield depend to a large extent on realization of the potentially benefiting effects of CO2 on crop growth and increase of efficiency of water use. Decrease in potential yields is likely to be caused by shortening of the growing period, decrease in water availability and poor vernalizaton. Further, weeds would undergo the same acceleration of cycle as cultivated crops and would also benefit of carbonaceous fertilization. Most weeds being C3 plants they are likely to compete even more than now. There will be considerable effect on microbes, pathogens and insect population and virulence.
Agricultural production in many countries including India would be severely compromised by climatic variability. Greater loss is expected in Rabi as compared to Kharif crops. By 2020 in some African and Asian countries, yield from rainfed agriculture could be reduced by up to 50 per cent. Agricultural production, including access to food in many African and Asian countries is projected to be severely compromised. Agriculture and allied activities constitute the single largest component of India’s gross domestic product, contributing nearly 25 per cent of the total. The Coping with global change: vulnerability and adaptation in Indian agriculture tremendous importance of this sector to the Indian economy can be gauged by the fact that it provides employment to two-thirds of the total workforce. Indian climate is dominated by the south-west monsoon, which brings most of the region’s precipitation. It is critical for the availability of drinking water and irrigation for agriculture. Agricultural productivity is sensitive to two broad classes of climate-induced effects—(1) direct effects from changes in temperature, precipitation, or carbon dioxide concentrations, and (2) indirect effects through changes in soil moisture and the distribution and frequency of infestation by pests and diseases. Rice and wheat yields could decline considerably with climatic changes (IPCC 1996; 2001). However, the vulnerability of agricultural production to climate change depends not only on the physiological response of the affected plant, but also on the ability of the affected socio-economic systems of production to cope with changes in yield, as well as with changes in the frequency of droughts or floods. The adaptability of farmers in India is severely restricted by the heavy reliance on natural factors and the lack of complementary inputs and institutional support systems.
Dr R.K. Pachauri Chairman of IPCC warned that Indian Agriculture is more vulnerable to climatic change compared to other countries. Studies have shown that agriculture would be hit in the sub-continent with increase in global temperatures. Wheat yield could fall by 5 to 10 per cent with every increase of 10 Celsius. The study reported in the Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America found that the rice yield at IRRI declined by 10 per cent for every 10 C increase in the mean nighttime temperature while the high daytime temperatures had no measurable effect. The increase in nighttime temperature was three fold greater than the increase in day time temperature rice yield declined by 15 per cent for every 10C increase in mean daily temperature. Temperatures are projected to rise globally three to nine times more than the past century. Global warming thus threatens to erase the hard won productivity gains that have kept the rice harvest in step with population growth. This would present a major challenge to prospects of self sufficiency in food production. This impact can also affect global food security and political stability with dire consequences for the poorest societies in the world. Equally important determinants of food supply are socio-economic environment including government policies, capital availability, prices and returns, infrastructure, land reforms and inter and intra-national trade that might be affected by climate change.
Climatic changes could result in higher temperatures and droughts that are more frequent, heavy floods in the Indo-gangetic plains, unseasonable rainfall posing a threat to crops nearing maturity and rise in sea level along the coast and in the Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadeep group of islands. Increasing temperature would increase fertilizer requirements for the same production targets and results in higher GHGs emissions, ammonia volatilization and cost of production. Physical access will be further eroded due to damage to livelihood security caused by adverse changes in temperature and precipitation. The rise in price of staple foods now occurring nationally and globally will further enhance poverty related endemic hunger. Such a grim situation indicates that government should give priority to better water management region specific agricultural technology and evolve cropping pattern which can tolerate higher temperature and water scarcity. To reduce the GHGs emission from agriculture, following measures can be taken:
• Improve the management of rice paddies production through judicious use of organic manure, fertilizers, irrigation water, nitrification inhibitors, fertilizer placement and their scheduling.
• Improve management of livestock population especially ruminants and its diet.
• Increase soil organic carbon through minimal tillage and residue management.
• Improve energy use efficiency in agriculture through better designs of machinery and by resource conservation practices.
• Change land use pattern by increasing area under bio fuels, agro forestry but not at the costs of food production.
The climatic changes also present opportunities for developing strategies, which can help to mitigate the adverse impact of aberrant weather. It is hoped that the current food crisis due to agricultural stagnation and escalating energy prices will led to the birth of an Ever-Green Revolution movement to improve productivity in perpetuity without ecological harming. It will also present an opportunity to enlarge the food basket by including jowar, bajra, ragi, and a wide variety of other millets and pulses. The climate change calamity can thus become a blessing in disguised in terms of reorientation of our agricultural research and development strategies based upon the principles of ecology, economics, equity, employment and energy security. The crisis of early 1960’s led to the birth of Green Revolution resulting from a synergy between technology and public policy. In early 1960’s India was leading a ship to mouth existence and there would have a serious famine like the Bengal famine of 1942-43, but for an import of 10 million tonne of wheat in 1966 from North America largely under US PL 480 programme. The pathways to an ever-green-revolution are organic farming and Green Agriculture. Organic farming is based upon an integrated relationship among soil, minerals, water, plants, micro flora, insects, animals and human beings. It creates productive landscapes and successfully reconciles food production and environmental conservation. In organic farming, farm is viewed as an economy. It is a way of farming which excludes the use of off-farm inputs such as chemical fertilizer, pesticides, insecticides etc and is primarily based on the principle: Use of natural organic inputs and biological plant protection measures. Organic management relies on local human resources and knowledge to enhance natural resource processes, respecting ecological carrying capacities Green agriculture is based on integrated pest and nutrient management, crop-livestock interaction, use of most appropriate and productive genetic strains, irrespective of the method breeding and the adoption of more crop and income per drop of water techniques. Both are environment friendly and will help prevent damage to the basic life support system of soil, water, biodiversity, forest and atmosphere. Good ecology is also a good business. A Bio-Valley is being established in a watershed area in the Koraput detract of Orissa. A Bio-valley is to biotechnology, what the Silicon Valley is to information technology. It will help to link bio-resources, biotechnology and business in a mutually reinforcing manner rushing in an era of bio happiness arising from the conservation and sustainable and equitable uses of bio-resources.
Farmers Adaptation:
Farmers in developing countries have to adapt to a climate that is changing and will further change. Farming practices will have to change in many regions. Under direr-hotter weather farmers need to switch over to the crops that grow and require less water. Alternatively they may have to switch over to more drought-resistant or heat-resistant varieties they already grew. Use of Bio technology for development of varieties with enhanced tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress, resource conservation technologies that use less water and nutrients are some examples of technologies required to tackle the effect of climate change. Breeders have to shoulder this responsibility by developing such varieties suitable under changing scenario. Work is already underway on developing heat-and-drought resistance varieties of staple crops. Moreover farmers need to perceive a need to change before implementation of adaptation at farm level. Farmers can benefit by changing not only what they grow but how they grow it. By reducing farmer’s manipulation of the soil, zero–tillage farming will helps conserve water and nutrients for crops and as an added benefit reduces the amount of carbon dioxide released from the soil into the atmosphere where it contributes to climate change. The Indo-Gangetic Plans, currently a highly productive irrigated agricultural area, may be classified from a high potential area to a heat-stressed area with short growing season by 2050 as per climate model predictions. Insufficient credit is one of the most important obstacles to adaptation besides lack of access to information on climate as well as options for adaptation. It would be easier for farmers to adapt to climate change if they knew what the weather is going to effect on their farms during the growing period. Meteorological departments have to realign towards agriculture and development will require major shifts in policy and substantial investment in human capacity and in data. Improving climatic information is just the half the battle won, the second half is ensuring the information to farmer to make farming decisions. Poor farmers in developing countries often make little use of the currently available operational climate information because the weather information is not provided on a narrow enough spatial and time scale. And it is not often made clear to farmers how certain or uncertain forecasts are. It must be remembered however, that climate forecast only reduces and not eliminate uncertainty. If risk-averse farmers are going to climate forecasts effectively, they must understand this uncertainty in a way that is consistent with how they understand and manage uncertainty in the absence forecasts. It is really a very challenging task. But it can be done through extension or farm advisory services. Apparently, successful adaptation will require not only new crop technologies and increased investment in water security but also policy backup to give small-scale subsistence farmers better access to information, credit and market.
What is the solution if despite farmers’ efforts to adapt, a drought or heat wave decimates their crops. The only solution is to introduce weather indexed insurance which is being tried in many areas. Insurance will not help farmers’ who confront permanent climate shifts that reduce viably of agriculture but it may be relevant for those who face more volatile weather events. Weather-indexed insurance pays out to farmers based not on their yield losses but on specific, local weather related benchmarks. But establishing effective crop insurance program raises some challenges. Insurance can be expensive and may not be affordable by the poor people who need it most. The cost also likely to increase as the probability of more severe weather events increases. Simple forms of regionally indexed weather insurance may be cost effective but need government help getting launched. Subsidizing the insurance for the most vulnerable as an alternative to direct disaster assistance may be considered.
A huge funds are required are adaptation. A new model of development is required to give urgency to copping with climate change. Funds are required to go in for researching crop varieties that are resistant to drought-heat and floods that sequester more carbon and can make better biofuels. Besides, other sectors too need funds to adapt as well. The contribution of countries to climate change and their capacity to prevent and cope with its consequences varies enormously. The convention and the Protocol therefore, foresee financial assistance from Parties with more resources to those less endowed and more vulnerable. Developed country Parties (Annex II parties) shall provide financial resources to assist the developing countries implement the Convention. To facilitate this, the resources to assist developing country Parties implement the convention. Further, the convention established a financial mechanism to provide funds to developing country Parties. The Parties to the Convention assigned operation of the financial mechanism to the Global Environment Facility (GEF) on an on-going basis, subject to review every four years. The financial mechanism is accountable to the COP, which decides on its climate change policies, programme priorities and eligibility criteria for funding, based on advice from the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI).
The Kyoto Protocol also recognizes, under its Article 11, the need for the financial mechanism to fund activities by developing country Parties. Developing countries require international assistance to support adaptation (Article 4.4, 4.8 and 4.9). This includes funding technology transfer and insurance as well as resources to reduce the risk of disasters and raise the resilience of communities to increasing extreme events. Least developed countries (LDCs) and Small Island Developing States (SIDS) need particular consideration due to heir extreme vulnerability. Funding to climate change activities is also through bilateral, regional and multilateral channels. Funding for adaptation is provided through the financial mechanism of the Convention, currently operated by the Global Environment Facility (GEF). Funding opportunities include:
• The trust fund, including the Strategic Priority on Adaptation and support for natural communications including vulnerability and adaptation assessments.
• The Least Developed Countries Fund under Convention.
• The Special Climate Change (SCCF) Fund under the convention.
• Adaptation Fund under the Kyoto Protocol managed by an Adaptation Fund Board and established at COP.
But funding from the existing funds is meager. The Adaptation fund is expected to receive only two per cent of all funds invested in the Clean Development Mechanism. Much more money is required for fund adaptation.
Role of Agro-forestry:
The response of forests to climatic changes is complex and is uncertain and involves dynamic interactions between various plants species in an ecosystem. There are risks involved in scaling up the short term transient responses of individual plant species or trees to long response of entire ecosystems. With erratic rainfall and decrease in precipitation levels, India’s forest wealth would deplete rapidly. Extreme temperature would extinct flora and fauna by 2030. The impact of climatic change on biodiversity of tropical forests is quite speculative. Plants are stressed and become vulnerable to pest’s attacks under increased temperature and low sol water availability. However, this diversity of tropical forests provides some protection against widespread attacks of pests and diseases. The intensity and frequency of forest fires in the topical forests is also of serious concern under changing climatic scenario. Increased temperature, lower humidity and reduced precipitation increases the risks of forest fire which ultimately lead to lower plant diversity. The terrestrial ecosystems appear to be storing increasing of carbon volume mainly due to increasing plant productivity due to elevated CO2 concentration, increased temperature and sol moisture changes. The soil carbon pool changes as a result of changes in carbon input and losses. Soil nutrient contents also altered. However, the process of photosynthesis responds differently to increased temperature. Initially it increases and then slow downs. On the other hand, respiration is slow initially but increase afterwards. The process continues till equilibrium is reached between the two and there is no net carbon assimilation. There is consensus that any positive influence of increased CO2 concentration on productivity will be small and negligible.
Climatic change is rapidly becoming the most serious threat likely to lead to some irreversible impacts on plant’s biodiversity. Approximately 20 to 30 per cent of species assessed so far are likely to be at increased risk of extinction if increase in global average warming exceeds 1.5 to 2.5 0 C relative to 1990-99. The implications of these changes if they are to occur would be grave and disastrous. However, it is within the reach of human society to meet these threats.
Agro-forestry, that is, cultivation of trees together with crops can help farmers cope with several of the adverse consequences of climatic change. Planting of trees between the crops and in the boundaries around crops can help prevent soil erosion restore soil fertility and provide shade for other crops. The practice of improved fallow also holds great promise. By planting certain fast growing shrubs on fallow land sol loss reduces and the structure of sol improved due to its increased water retention power. Optimal use of retained rainwater through agro forestry practice could be one of the effective ways of improving adaptive capacity of systems to climatic change.
Agro-forestry also has the benefit of contributing to climatic change mitigation because trees and shrubs tend to sequester more carbon than other crops. As per PCC reports agro forestry has the potential to sequester nearly 600 million tons of carbon a year by 2040 compared with 120 million tons of cropland. Given that deforestation and agriculture account for 32 per cent of GHGs emissions farmers in developing countries who are at risk from climatic change should be able to improve their livelihoods by participating in Carbon emissions trading as part of the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism. Receipts from carbon trading could encourage then to adjust their farming practices in ways that benefit the globe while also helping to enhance their income. But to achieve these goals CDM would need to be modified. Agricultural land use change and forest preservation should e included as eligible activities; procedures for granting payments for afforestation and reforestation should be simplified and limits to payments n these categories should be removed. Farmer’s cooperatives or even rural bans could arrange for certifying the group’s carbon sequestration applying for carbon payments and distributing funds back to farmers. Farmers have to switch to a new value proposition from the past to increase production.

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Climate change, water and food security
Source: Overseas Development Institute (ODI)
Date: 18 Mar 2009
ODI Background paper
By Eva Ludi
The food price crisis of 2008 has led to the re-emergence of debates about global food security (e.g. Wiggins, 2008) and its impact on prospects for achieving the first Millennium Development Goal (MDG): to end poverty and hunger. On top of a number of shorter-term triggers leading to volatile food prices, the longer-term negative impacts of climate change need to be taken very seriously.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) warns that the progress in human development achieved over the last decade may be slowed down or even reversed by climate change, as new threats emerge to water and food security, agricultural production and access, and nutrition and public health. The impacts of climate change – sea level rise, droughts, heat waves, floods and rainfall variation – could, by 2080, push another 600 million people into malnutrition and increase the number of people facing water scarcity by 1.8 billion (UNDP 2008).
Agriculture constitutes the backbone of most African economies. It is the largest contributor to GDP; the biggest source of foreign exchange, accounting for about 40% of the continent's foreign currency earnings; and the main generator of savings and tax revenues. In addition, about two-thirds of manufacturing value-added is based on agricultural raw materials. Agriculture remains crucial for pro-poor economic growth in most African countries, as rural areas support 70-80% of the total population. More than in any other sector, improvements in agricultural performance have the potential to increase rural incomes and purchasing power for large numbers of people to lift them out of poverty (NEPAD, 2002; Wiggins, 2006).
Climate change, however, is considered as posing the greatest threat to agriculture and food security in the 21st century, particularly in many of the poor, agriculture-based countries of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) with their low capacity to effectively cope (Shah et al., 2008; Nellemann et al., 2009).
African agriculture is already under stress as a result of population increase, industrialisation and urbanisation, competition over resource use, degradation of resources, and insufficient public spending for rural infrastructure and services. The impact of climate change is likely to exacerbate these stresses even further.
The outlook for the coming decades is that agricultural productivity needs to continue to increase and will require more water to meet the demands of growing populations. Ensuring equitable access to water and its benefits now and for future generations is a major challenge as scarcity and competition increase.
The amount of water allocated to agriculture and water management choices will determine, to a large extent, whether societies achieve economic and social development and environmental sustainability (Molden et al., 2007).
This paper reviews current knowledge about the relationships between climate change, water and food security. All material © 2002 ODI HPN
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